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"Managers use various pricing strategies when determining the price of a product, as this section explains. Price skimming and penetration pricing are strategies used in pricing new products; other strategies such as leader pricing and bundling may be used for established products as well.\n\nThe practice of introducing a new product on the market with a high price and then lowering the price over time is called price skimming. As the product moves through its life cycle, the price usually is lowered because competitors are entering the market. As the price falls, more and more consumers can buy the product. Recent example are DVD players and flat-screen televisions. When they first came out, DVD players were priced at around $500 while flat-screen televisions were priced at over $1,000. Over time, the price of DVD players has sunk to under $100, while 4-inch Insignia brand flat-screen TVs can be purchased for under $220. Price skimming has four important advantages. First, a high initial price can be a way to find out what buyers are willing to pay. Second, if consumers find the introductory price too high, it can be lowered. Third, a high introductory price can create an image of quality and prestige. Fourth, when the price is lowered later, consumers may think they are getting a bargain. The disadvantage is that high prices attract competition. Price skimming can be used to price virtually any new products, such as high-definition televisions, new cancer drugs, and color computer printers. For example, the Republic of Tea recently launched Emperor’s White Tea, which it says is among the rarest of teas. Because it is minimally processed, white tea is said to retain the highest level of antioxidants and has a lower caffeine content than black and green teas. The company says the tea is picked only a few days each year, right before the leaf opens, yielding a small harvest. The product retails for $16 per tin of 50 bags. Products don’t have to cost hundreds of dollars to use a skimming strategy.\n\nA company that doesn’t use price skimming will probably use penetration pricing. With this strategy, the company offers new products at low prices in the hope of achieving a large sales volume. Procter & Gamble did this with its SpinBrush toothbrush. Penetration pricing requires more extensive planning than skimming does because the company must gear up for mass production and marketing. When Texas Instruments entered the digital-watch market, its facilities in Lubbock, Texas, could produce 6 million watches a year, enough to meet the entire world demand for low-priced watches. If the company had been wrong about demand, its losses would have been huge. Penetration pricing has two advantages. First, the low initial price may induce consumers to switch brands or companies. Using penetration pricing on its jug wines, Gallo has lured customers away from Taylor California Cellars and Inglenook. Second, penetration pricing may discourage competitors from entering the market. Their costs would tend to be higher, so they would need to sell more at the same price to break even."